S23.1: The growth of ornithology in India and the contribution of indigenous knowledge

Asad R. Rahmani

Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh - 202 002, India, Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, India, fax 091 022 2837615

Rahmani, A.R. 1999. The growth of ornithology in India and the contribution of indigenous knowledge. In: Adams, N.J. & Slotow, R.H. (eds) Proc. 22 Int. Ornithol. Congr., Durban: 1339-1343. Johannesburg: BirdLife South Africa.

India is one of the 12 mega-diversity countries of the world due to its rich biological and cultural diversities. The ecosystems of India range from alpine grasslands, humid rain forest, dry deciduous forests, hot and cold deserts to coastal mangrove forests. The country has nine major languages and more than 300 dialects, distributed over 26 regional states with their own sub-cultures. According to the latest classification of Sibley & Monroe (1990), the Indian subcontinent has nearly 1330 species of birds. All the language and sub-cultures of India have a rich tradition of description of birds. Sanskrit is one of the ancient languages of India. All the great epics of India such as Ramayana, Mahabharata and Rigveda are replete with descriptions of birds (Dave 1985). Local names of birds, their behaviour and habits (not always accurate) are present in almost all the regions of India. For instance, out of 370 bird species described form Kerala state (Ali 1984), 308 have specific names in the local language (Malyalam), 53 species do not have specific name. In his seminar book Birds of Saurashtra, Dharmakumarsinhji (1954) has mentioned the Gujarati names (local language) of all the 435 species which he found in Saurashtra. In another Indian language called Hindi spoken in almost half of India, 503 birds species are identified, which again proves that Indian from ancient times had some knowledge of local birds and most species were specifically identified.

 

Moghul emperors

In medieval times, the ruling emperors (mid 16th to mid 19th centuries AD), especially Babur and Jahangir, were very keen observers of natural history (Ali 1927). Babur, the founder of Moghul dynasty in India, was a keen observer of nature and anything which fascinated him, he used to describe in detail and wanted to know more about it. Babur who came from Central Asia, at once recognized that some quail species were similar to those from his native place while 4 to 5 species are peculiar to India. He described the difference between male and female Lesser Florican Sypeotides (NB Sybley calls this Eupodotis) indica. ‘The thoroughness with which Babur has dealt with this family of game birds is apparent, and bespeaks an interest and knowledge possessed only by exceptionally keen observer’ (Ali 1937).

Abu Fazi, the chronicler of another great Moghul emperor, Akbar (1556 to 1605 AD), writing about Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus says ‘it catches the note of any animal that it hears and eats its fresh’. According to Ali & Ripley (1983), this bird is an exceptionally versatile and convincing mimic and imitates calls of a large number of animals and even inanimate noises. Jahangir, who ruled from 1605 to 1627 AD, had a special team of wildlife painters headed by Mansur, Jahangir’s description of mating behaviour of Sarus crane Grus antigone and Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri are remarkable for their accuracy. According to Ali (1927) ‘their minuteness and accuracy are such as would do justice to any modern work on Natural History’ For example, Jahangir noted that the Sarus crane, in the beginning two eggs touch each other when being incubated but after 14 or 15 days, they were always found separated. He concluded that it could be due to the heat generated by the developing embryos that would become too great from their contact with each other and spoil the eggs. He also found that Sarus leave the eggs for foraging but when it rained for two days, the female Sarus kept on incubating continuously. Jahangir also knew that birds migrate for long distances. When he found a thin Demoiselle Crane[Grus virgo] Anthropoides virgo, he noted ‘at the time of coming from, or going to Hindustan (India) it became very thin’.

Similarly, during his voyage to Kashmir, Jahangir was fascinated by the behaviour of the Dipper Cinclus. He wanted to confirm whether this bird is a waterfowl or not by looking at its feet. After observing three to four birds, he confirmed that it is not a waterfowl as it does not have webbed feet.

Modern scientific ornithology

Despite these facts, scientific study of birds in India started during the British colonial period from late 18th century till India’s Independence in 1947. The British were keen naturalists and sportsmen and noted their observations in diaries and journals.

From 1873 to 1899, Allan Octume Hume, co-founder of the Indian National Congress (a political party) and the Bombay Natural History Society, edited a highly popular journal called Stray Feathers. It was the first journal devoted entirely to ornithology of south Asia. Unfortunately, after 11 volumes, it was stopped but during its short life span, it created tremendous interest in Indian ornithology. In its first issue, Hume described 11 new avian species. Later every issue had description of eight to ten new species. Most of the articles were written by British posted in India. Hume himself was an officer in the British civil service. There was no article by an Indian. Although not specifically mentioned, many bird specimens, nests and eggs were obtained by British ornithologists with the help of ‘natives’, especially local hunters and trappers who have proficient knowledge of their quarry.

Like their British masters, Indian prince and rulers were keen hunters and naturalists. Many rulers had separate hunting department which maintained records, especially of game animals. Some Indian rulers also used to note down their observations, notably among them were Maharao of Kutch and Dharmakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar. Dharmakumarsinhji’s perceptible descriptions of breeding behaviour of the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica (1952) and the ecology of Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (1957, 1962) are some of the finest papers written by Indian ornithologists. Dharmakumarsinhji’s book Birds of Saurashtra (1954) is another important contribution of an Indian ornithologist.

Perhaps the first book on keeping birds in captivity was written by Ram Bramha Sanyal (1850-1908). This was during the British domain when Indians were generally not allowed or encouraged to study let alone publish their findings. Sanyal was the first Indian Superintendent of the Zoological Garden, Calcutta. He was a keen observer of nature and meticulously maintained notes on each species. In the Zoological Garden he gained experience of keeping, handling, treating and maintaining animals and in 1892, he published a treatise ‘A Handbook of Management of Wild animals in Captivity in Lower Bengal’. The book is entirely based on author’s keen observations about feeding habits of animals, their ailments, life span in captivity, their behaviour, breeding and birth, keeping of young ones, any special requirements and the best way to keep animals happy in captivity. The book is in two parts. In the first part, Sanyal (1892) describes zoo management of 241 mammals, and the second part with 402 bird species, both Indian and exotic forms. For each species, Sanyal (1892) had given Common English and scientific names, Hindi and Bengalee names, habits, length of life in captivity, housing, food, breeding, transport, treatment in sickness and general observations.

Traditional knowledge of bird traders

Keeping birds in India has a very long history. Mynas Acridotheres and Gracula and Parakeets Psittacula have always been popular cage birds, especially due to their ability to mimic human voice. In north India alone, there are five major communities of bird trappers and traders who have vast traditional knowledge of catching, keeping, transporting and breeding birds (Ahmed 1997). The communities are Baheliya, Mirshikaris, Pathmis or Jabjalies, Lodhis and Harreis. The Mirshikaris have tremendous knowledge of bird habits which they use for catching them. Their knowledge and experience are regularly employed by serious scientists to catch and keep birds for research purpose (Rahmani 1985, Ali et al. 1985).

As bird trade has been totally prohibited in India since 1991, many trappers are facing hardship. It is feared that with the bird trade, vast traditional knowledge of trapping, transport, caring, feeding and in some case breeding, would disappear. Ahmed (1997) has suggested that such professional trappers should be employed in zoos and research institutes where birds, mammals, reptiles etc, are kept either for research or for educational purposes. Mr. J.C. Daniel (1997, pers.comm.) of the Bombay Natural History Society suggests that all traditional knowledge of animal trapping and caring should be properly documented and some traditional trapping methods should be patented.

Another branch of bird keeping where traditional knowledge plays an important role is the breeding and upkeep of francolins or partridges, Francolinus pondicerianus, F. francolinus, F gularis and F. pictus, for fighting purpose. Despite the ban on bird trading, there is a flourishing market in rural areas for partridge fighting. These fights take place at regular intervals in pre-fixed sites and a huge amount of money is betted. Most of these partridge fanciers raise the birds from chick stage and many professional fighters even breed them. To make them strong and robust, special diet is fed to chicks, which is in some cases a family secret.

Indian ornithological literature

The Stray Feathers and the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (JBNHA) were established and nurtured by British rulers of India. As reported earlier, the Stray Feathers was closed down after 11 volumes but JBNHS has been published uninterrupted for the last 114 years. At the time of departure of British in 1947, there was apprehension that BNHS and the journal would not survive but thanks to meticulous editing by Dr. Salim Ali later by Mr. J. C. Daniel, the JBNHS is still one of the premier journals on natural history of Southeast Asia. Out of the 48 articles on birds in the recent volume (93) published in 1996, 42 were by Indian and only six by non-Indians.

The Newsletter for Birdwatchers, started by Mr. Zafar Futehelly in 1961, is in its 36 years of publication. It was the first journal totally dedicated to Indian ornithology. More than 95% of the articles are written by Indian ornithologists. Another important ornithology journal regularly published by Indians is Mayura: the Newsletter of Birdwatcher’s Society of Andhra Pradesh. This Society was established in the state of Andhra Pradesh by four Indians and now it has become a strong organisation, thanks mainly to efforts of two founder-members Mr. Aashish Pittie and Mr. Siraj Taher.

Another ornithology journal started and sustained by Indians is Pavo, published since 1963. The journal mostly caters to avian physiologists, morphologists and taxonomists. In recent years, it has started publishing papers on natural history and behaviour.

Indian ornithologists

Undoubtedly, Dr. Salim Ali (1896-1987) is the topmost ornithologist of the Indian continent. Starting with a short note on the mating habits of the Common Kite Milvus migrans govinda in JBNHS in 1936, Dr. Salim Ali wrote more than 100 papers as the first author and many more as second author. He wrote 30 books including the 10 volume seminal work the Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, with American ornithologist Dr. Dillon S. Ripley. Perhaps the greatest contribution of Dr. Salim Ali was in popularising ornithology and training a large number of students who now have become ornithologists in their own right. He also moulded government’s attitude towards sanctuaries (e.g. Keoladeo National Park at Bharatpur, Harike Bird Sanctuary in Punjab, Marnala Bird Sanctuary near Bombay).

Dr. Salim Ali’s cousin, Mr. Humayan Abdulali, although not so well known, has contributed equally impressively in development of Indian ornithology. His first paper was in 1931 on the discovery of 11 Koel Eudynamys scolopacea eggs in a nest of a crow Covus splendens. During the span of 66 years, he has written more than 200 papers on birds. His most important contribution is a series on the bird specimens in the museum of BNHS as Catalogue of Birds in BNHS Collection. Thirty seven parts have been published, while 38th part is published press. He will write two or three more parts to finish the 2060 species and subspecies present in BNHS collection.

Another Indian ornithologist worth mentioning is Dr. Biswas of the Zoological Survey of India. He specialised in the birds of Nepal and northeast India.

One of the most interesting aspects of Indian ornithology is the role of female scientists. In 1950s and 1960s, Jamal Ara, a housewife of a forest officer, wrote many informative articles in the Newsletter for Birdwatchers. Some of them are even now the only source material on birds of remote valleys and mountains in the state of Bihar, where her husband was posted. Starting in 1950 till her death in 1987, she wrote 17 articles and published a book Watching Birds (Ara 1970) for children. At the same time, another woman named Usa Ganguli made a mark on the Indian ornithological scene. Although she did not write many papers, her book A Guide to the Birds of Delhi area became an instant success. Unfortunately, her untimely death ended a very promising career.

During the 1960s and 1970s, notable contributions to Indian ornithology were made by Mr. V.C. Ambedkar, Mr. Lavkumar Khacher, Mr. Himmaatsinhji, Mr. Zafar Futehally, Mr. K.K. Neelakanthan, Dr. V. S. Vijayana and Mr. S. A. Hussain. Prominent among the younger Indian ornithologists who are leaving a distinct mark are Dr. Ravi Snakaran, Dr. Ranjit-Daniels, Dr. V. Santharam, Dr. Bharat Bhushan, Mr. Aasheesh Pittie, Mrs. Usha-Lachungpa, Dr. Teaj Mandkur and Mr. Rishad Naoroji.

Prominent Ornithological organisations

For almost 100 years, the Bombay Natural History Society was the key institute known for its ornithological work, thanks to the influence of Dr. Salim Ali. Owing to his sustained efforts, more and more people started taking interest in this subject and now five universities have full-fledged course in natural sciences, with a major component being ornithology. In 1982, the government of India established Wildlife Institute of India where ornithology is taught and research projects are taken up. In 1991, the BNHS established Dr. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History which is now an independent institute. In 1986, the Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology was established in Aligarh Muslim University which within a span of 10 years has become an important Centre for research in birds. There are numerous local and state level ornithological societies which mainly focus on birdwatching and bird conservation activities. All of them are established, nurtured and maintained by Indians.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Mr. J. C. Daniel and Dr. S. Unnithan of the Bombay Natural History Society for useful discussion and for help in writing this paper.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, A. 1997. Live Bird Trade in Northern India. TRAFFIC-India & World fund for Nature; India: 104pp.

Ali, S.A. 1927. The Moghul Emperors of India as Naturalists and Sportsmen. Part 11. J. Bombay Nat. His. Soc. 32: 34-63

Ali, S. 1984. Birds of Kerala. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Ali, S. & Ripley, S.D. 1983. The Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan (Compact edition). Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Ali, S., Daniel, J.C. & Rahmani, A.R. 1985. Study of Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of Wildlife and their Habitats. The Floricans, Annual Report 1: 1984-85. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay: 99pp.

Ara, J. 1970. Watching Birds. National Book Trust, New Delhi.

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Rahmani, A.R. 1985. Colour-banding the Great Indian Bustard. Hornbill 1985(1): 23-27.